Poisonous Mushroom

There are over 38,000 varieties of mushrooms available, over 3,000 in North America alone, with varying colors, textures and flavors. Some are so rare that they only grow for one week during the year.

They grow wild in many areas, but most mushrooms on the market are commercially-grown on farms. Mushrooms do not depend upon photosynthesis to grow. They need only rain and moderate temperatures to proliferate.

The best mushroom harvesting is done while it is raining.

Warning! Many mushrooms are poisonous

Some areas are known for their prized wild mushrooms, but it is most important that you research your target thoroughly if you intend to harvest your own wild mushrooms because many are highly toxic and life-threatening.

Please do not rely upon any casual column to determine toxicity of wild mushrooms. The danger inherent in many poisonous varieties of mushrooms cannot be over-stressed.

Unless you are well-educated in all types of mushrooms, particularly in identification of poisonous ones, it is wise to purchase your mushrooms from a reputable grower or grocer rather than hunting them yourself.

A simple identification error can lead to symptoms of sweating, cramps, diarrhea, confusion, convulsions, and potentially result in liver damage with a mortality rate of 60 percent or higher.

Why take the chance?

untrusted mushroom

History

Several mesolithic rock paintings from Tassili n'Ajjer (a prehistoric North African site identified with the Capsian culture) have been identified by author Giorgio Samorini as depicting the shamanic use of mushrooms, possibly Psilocybe.^[3]

Hallucinogenic species of Psilocybe have a long history of use among the native peoples of Mesoamerica for religious communion, divination, and healing, from pre-Columbian times up to the present day. Mushroom-shaped statuettes found at archaeological sites seem to indicate that ritual use of hallucinogenic mushrooms is quite ancient. Mushroom stones and motifs have been found in Mayan temple ruins in Guatemala,^[4] though there is considerable controversy as to whether these objects indicate the use of hallucinogenic mushrooms or whether they had some other significance with the mushroom shape being simply a coincidence.^{[citation needed]} More concretely, a statuette dating from ca. 200 CE and depicting a mushroom strongly resembling Psilocybe mexicana was found in a west Mexican shaft and chamber tomb in the state of Colima .

Hallucinogenic Psilocybe were known to the Aztecs as teonanácatl (literally "god's mushroom" or, more properly, "flesh of the gods" - agglutinative form of teó (god) and nanácatl (mushroom) in Náhuatl) and were reportedly served at the coronation of the Aztec ruler Moctezuma II in 1502. Aztecs and Mazatecs referred to psilocybin mushrooms as genius mushrooms, divinatory mushrooms, and wondrous mushrooms, when translated into English.^[5] Bernardino de Sahagún reported ritualistic use of teonanácatl by the Aztecs, when he traveled to Central America after the expedition of Herando Cortés.

After the Spanish conquest, Catholic missionaries campaigned against the "pagan idolatry," and as a result, the use of hallucinogenic plants and mushrooms, like other pre-Christian traditions, was forcibly suppressed.^[4] The Spanish believed the mushroom allowed the Aztecs and others to communicate with "devils". In converting people to Catholicism, the Spanish pushed for a switch from teonanácatl to the Catholic sacrament of the Eucharist. Despite this history, in some remote areas the use of teonanácatl has remained.^{[citation needed]}

By the twentieth century, hallucinogenic mushroom use was thought by non-Native Americans to have disappeared entirely^{[citation needed]}. Some authors even held that Mesoamerican cultures did not use mushrooms as hallucinogens at all and that the Spanish had simply mistaken peyote for a mushroom^{[citation needed]}. Later investigations by Blas Pablo Reko, Richard Evans Schultes, and R. Gordon Wasson demonstrated that hallucinogenic mushrooms were still widely used by several indigenous Mesoamerican peoples, particularly the Mazatecs of Oaxaca.

At present, hallucinogenic mushroom use has been reported among a number of groups spanning from central Mexico to Oaxaca, including groups of Nahua, Mixtecs, Mixe, Mazatecs, Zapotecs, and others. There has not, however, been any confirmed observations of hallucinogenic mushroom use among the Maya peoples, either in the pre-Columbian or post-Contact eras^{[citation needed]}.

According to the BBC, the first documented use of psychedelic mushrooms was in the Medical and Physical Journal: In 1799, a man who had been picking mushrooms for breakfast in London's Green Park included them in his harvest, accidentally sending his entire family on a trip. The doctor who treated them later described how the youngest child "was attacked with fits of immoderate laughter, nor could the threats of his father or mother refrain him."

In 1955, Valentina and R. Gordon Wasson became the first Westerners to actively participate in an indigenous mushroom ceremony. The Wassons did much to publicize their discovery, even publishing an article on their experiences in Life in 1957.^[6] In 1956, Roger Heim identified the hallucinogenic mushroom that the Wassons had brought back from Mexico as Psilocybe and in 1958, Albert Hofmann first identified psilocin and psilocybin as the active compound in these mushrooms.

Inspired by the Wassons' Life article, Timothy Leary traveled to Mexico to experience hallucinogenic mushrooms firsthand. Upon returning to Harvard in 1960, he and Richard Alpert started the Harvard Psilocybin Project, promoting psychological and religious study of psilocybin and other hallucinogenic drugs. After Leary and Alpert were dismissed by Harvard in 1963, they turned their attention toward evangelizing the psychedelic experience to the nascent hippie counterculture.

The popularization of entheogens by Wasson, Leary, and others has led to an explosion in the use of hallucinogenic Psilocybe throughout the world. By the early 1970s, a number of psychoactive Psilocybe species were described from temperate North America, Europe, and Asia and were widely collected. Books describing methods of cultivating Psilocybe cubensis in large quantities were also published. The relatively easy availability of hallucinogenic Psilocybe from wild and cultivated sources has made it among the most widely used of the hallucinogenic drugs.

news on mushroom

Fresh mushrooms add flavor and flair to everyday meals. They are low in calories, have no cholesterol and are virtually fat and sodium free.

Once you bring your mushrooms home, they should be placed inside of a brown paper bag and refrigerated. Do not store your mushrooms in a plastic bag as this will cause them to get soggy. To clean your mushrooms, wipe with a damp paper towel to dust off the dirt. Mushrooms absorb water like a sponge so use as little water in cleaning them as you feel comfortable with.

Try some of the exotic mushroom recipes below. Don’t be afraid to substitute on type of mushroom for one you already have on hand. Most of these recipes work equally well with any type of mushroom.

	Beech: Mushrooms are petite with either all white or light brown caps. The Beech has a crunchy texture offering a delicately mild flavor that is sweet and deliciously nutty.
	Black Trumpet : Light gray to jet-black, vase shape, highly perfumed. Available year -round, except April-May.
	Chanterelle: Golden, with white flesh. Button or vase shaped cap with veins. Apricot nuances. Available year-round except may-June. Substitute hedgehogs.
	Crimini: Crimini mushrooms are similar in appearance to the Whites because they come from the same family (Agaricus). Look for a naturally light tan to rich brown cap and a very firm texture. Deeper, denser, earthier flavor than White mushrooms.
	Elf Abalone: The Elf Abalone mushroom is a delicate white sphere with soft spines and no stem. It has a mild, sweet taste and pleasant texture that has been compared to lobster or very tender veal. It's appearance has earned it many interesting common names including Monkey's head, Lion's Mane, Bear's Head, Old Man's Beard, and Satyr's Beard. Among its other medicinal benefits pom pom is best known for its traditional use in treating ailments of the stomach and digestive tract, as well as nervous system disorders.
	Enoki: Fragile, flower-like with long, slender stems and tiny caps, Enoki mushrooms grow in small clusters. They have a mild, light flavor with a slight crunch.
	Hedge Hog: Pumpkin-colored, bristly underside like its namesake. Tangy flavor. Available January - March and August - September. Substitute chanterelles.
	King Oyster (Royal Trumpet): King Oyster mushrooms have a light brown trumpet-shaped caps resting on tender white stems and a delicate flavor.
	Lobster: Firm; lobster-red in color. Available July-September.
	Maitake: Maitakes are described by a cluster of dark fronds with firm and supple texture at base, becoming slightly brittle and crumbly at the edges. Maitake mushrooms have a distinctive aroma with a rich, woodsy taste.
	Morels: Morel mushrooms have short, thick, hollow stems, topped with sponge-like pointed caps, resembling honeycombs. Morels may be tan, yellow or black in color and produce a rich, nut-like flavor and woodsy fragrance.
	Oyster: Fluted and graceful, Oyster mushrooms range in color from soft brown to gray. They are best if cooked. Oyster mushrooms have a delicate, mild flavor and velvety texture.
	Pioppino: Pioppino mushrooms have a mellow and attractive flavor.
	Pom Pom: The Elf Abalone mushroom is a delicate white sphere with soft spines and no stem. It has a mild, sweet taste and pleasant texture that has been compared to lobster or very tender veal. It's appearance has earned it many interesting common names including Monkey's head, Lion's Mane, Bear's Head, Old Man's Beard, and Satyr's Beard. Among its other medicinal benefits pom pom is best known for its traditional use in treating ailments of the stomach and digestive tract, as well as nervous system disorders.
	Porcini: Bulbous stem and rounded cap, from ivory to reddish brown. Taste similar to winecap. Available year-round, except August.
	Portabella: Impressive in size and appearance, the Portabella mushroom is a larger, hardier relative of the White and Crimini and can range up to 6 inches in diameter. Portabellas have a longer growing cycle than Whites and Criminis resulting in a deep, meat-like texture and flavor.
	Shiitake: Shiitakes range in color from tan to dark brown with broad, umbrella-shaped caps, wide open veils and tan gills. Shiitake caps have a soft, spongy texture. When cooked, Shiitake mushrooms are rich and woodsy with a meaty texture.
	Truffles: Round in shape, size varies from marble to potato. Truffles have an oaky, woodsy, peppery aromatic, distinctive taste.
	Whites: White mushrooms vary in color from creamy white to light brown and in sizes from small (button) to jumbo. They are pleasingly mild and woodsy; their flavor intensifies when cooked. Freshly picked White mushrooms have closed veils (caps that fit closely to the stem) and delicate flavor; mature Whites, with open veils and darkened caps, develop a richer, deeper taste.
	Wood Ear: Golden brown ear-shaped mushroom. Slightly chewy with mild flavor.

mushroom recipies

At one time, the only mushroom a consumer could buy at the supermarket was the white button mushroom. Today, there are a wide variety of mushrooms available in supermarkets and specialty stores. By clicking on one of the tabs above, you will find delicious recipes for these "wild" mushrooms.

The majority of these recipes are provided by Jack Czarnecki, a chief promoter of mushrooms, and are taken from his Portobello Cookbook. Other good mushroom cookbooks are Mushroom Lover's Cookbook, Medicinal Mushrooms, and The Shiitake Way.

Portabella Pom Pom
Maitake Crimini Royal Trumpet			Beech Oyster
	Shiitake	Enoki

MUSHROOMS IN CREAM

==================

Ingredients:

------------
1 pound  of mushrooms into halves or quarters.
2/3 cup  heavy cream.  Heat
2 tblsp  butter in a deep frying pan.
3-4      chopped garlic cloves
1 tsp    pepper
2 tsp    nutmeg
1/2 cup  chopped cilantro

salt

Instructions:
-------------
Chop 1 pound of mushrooms into halves or quarters.  Heat 2/3 cup heavy
cream.  Heat 2T butter in a deep frying pan.  Add 3-4 chopped garlic
cloves to the butter.  Add mushrooms and cook for about 2 min, until
     
brown.  Add hot cream, salt, 1 tsp pepper, 2 tsp nutmeg.  Cook for about
5 more min, then add 1/2 cup chopped cilantro.  Serve on hot buttered
rice or French bread

awesome mushroom

Pleurotus is a genus of gilled mushrooms which includes one of the most widely eaten mushrooms, the oyster mushroom.

. Introduction: The Fast Fungus described here is the fast-growing, edible oyster mushroom species Pleurotus sajor-caju. This mushroom was originally found in India, growing naturally on a succulent plant (Euphorbia royleans) in the foothills of the Himalayas. Students will be able to grow P. sajor-caju in laboratory glassware and observe fruiting under conditions such as: amount of light, type of light, and aeration. Students will also be able to observe the degradative nature of this fungus, and the active transport of colored dyes in the medium.

II. Materials:

• A. Culturing
  1. Pleurotus sajor-caju. You may want to grow the culture on a Petri plate containing a synthetic medium, such as Potato-Dextrose Agar.
  2. Erlenmeyer flasks (pyrex, 250ml or 300ml) plus sponge or cotton plugs
  3. Alcohol burner (or bunsen burner) matches
  4. Quick cooking oats 1 gram per flask (oatmeal flakes are smaller, easier to degrade)
  5. 25ml graduated cylinder 25 ml tap water per flask
  6. Autoclave (or pressure cooker)
• B. Light Investigation
  1. Crystal Prism
  2. Colored Cellophane (red, green, blue, yellow, black, or aluminum foil)
  3. Clear Tape
• C. Aeration Investigation
  1. Aluminum Foil
  2. Solid, Rubber Plugs
  3. Plastic Food Wrap, Various Brands
• D. Degradation of Strings Investigation
  1. wire string holder per flask
  2. polyester thread
  3. cotton thread (not cotton-covered polyester)
  4. wool strand from skein
  5. piece of hair (from student) alternatively, anything in string form that could be tied
  6. stainless-steel nuts
• E.Decolorization and Transport Investigation
  1. Food coloring (red, green, blue, yellow) alternatively, boiled juices from red cabbage, spinach, beets, grape juice
  2. Phenol red dye

III. Procedures:

• A. Culturing After the mycelium spreads across the plate, slice the culture into small squares, and transfer each tissue square aseptically into sterile flasks.
• B. Light Investigation
• C. Aeration Investigation
• D. Degradation of Strings Investigation
• E. Decolorization and Transport Investigation

MODEL ON OYSTER MUSHROOM CULTIVATION

Oyster Mushroom (Pleurotusspp.)

Pleurotus spp. is one of the choice edible mushrooms which can be cultivated in the tropics. It has gained importance only in the last decade and is now being cultivated in many countries in the subtropical and temperate zones. In Europe it is known as the oyster mushroom (P.ostreatus), while in China it is called the balone mushroom (P.abalonus or P. cystidiosus). Several other species are now available for cultivation. These are P.sajor-caju, P.florida (probably a variant of P.ostrcatus), P.sapidus, P.eryngii, P. columbinus, P.cornucopiae, and P.abellatus.

The different species of Pleurotus are suited to growing within a temperature range of 15 to 30^o

C, P.sajor-caju is tolerant of a tropical temperature of 28-30^oC although, it fruits faster and produces larger mushrooms at 25^oC during the cooler months of the year or in the highlands of the tropics. This is the species now popularly grown in the tropical Southeast Asian countries, including India. P.abalonus prefers lower temperatures of 22-24^oC and is most popular among the Chinese. P.ostreatus is the so-called low-temperature pleurotus, fruiting mostly at 12-20^oC. This species is more suited to the temperate climates of Europe and the United States, although many growers in the USA are also producing P.sajor-caju.

Like the other mushrooms, Pleurotus spp. can be grown on various agricultural waste materials, with the

use of different technologies. They grow well on different types of lignocellulosic materials, converting the materials into digestible and protein-rich substances suitable for animal feeds. Pleurotus spp. may be produced in the tropics on a mixture of sawdust and rice bran, rice straw and rice bran, saw dust and ipil-ipil leaves and other combinations of tropical wastes. Other wastes such as corncobs, cotton waste, sugarcane bagasse and laves, corn leaves, grasses, rice hulls, and water hyacinth leaves are also good substrates for growing this mushroom (Quimio, 1986). The substrates used in each region depend upon the availability of agricultural wastes.

Sterilization / Pasteurization

The use of a pressure cooker to sterilize Pleurotus substrate is not recommended since sterilization kills beneficial micro organisms which are present in the substrate, as well as the harmful ones. In addition, nutrien

ts in the compost are broken down by sterilization into forms more favorable for the growth and development of competing micro organisms (FAO, 1983). Thus, substrates that are sterilized are easily contaminated unless spawned under very aseptic conditions, as in media and spawn preparation.

Steaming at 100^oC (pasteurisation) is more acceptable because the cost is lower (the steamer may only be an ordinary large-capacity casserole or a drum) and substrates thus steamed are less susceptible to contamination. The substrate is steamed for 2-3 hours, depending on the volume and the size of the bags. When using a lower temperature (60-70oC) as in the case of room or bulk pasteurisation, the substrates, whether in bulk or already packed in bags, are steamed for at least 6 to 8 hours. Plate 11 shows a range of low-cost steamers designed for the tropics.

Inoculation / Spawning

Spawning is carried out aseptically; preferably using the same transfer chamber or the same inoculation room as is used in spawn preparation.

Grain or sawdust spawn is commonly used to inoculate the substrate in bags. With grain spawn, the bottle is shaken to separate the seeds colonized with the white mycelium. After lifting the plug and flaming the mouth of the bottle, a few spawn grains (about 1 to 2 tsp.) are poured into the substrate bag. Both the plug of the spawn and the plug of the compost bag are replaced and the next bags are then inoculated. The newly inoculated bags are slightly tilted to distribute the grains evenly in the shoulder area of the bag around the neck.

For sawdust spawn, the spawn is broken up with an aseptic needle. A piece of the spawn may then be transferred, using a long flat-spooned needle especially designed to scoop the spawn. One bottle of grain or sawdust spawn in a 500-ml dextrose bottle is sufficient to inoculate 40 to 50 bags.

The highly industrialized method involves bulk-pasteurisation and bulk-spawning before the substrates are distributed in beds similar to those used for Agaricus. The system is labour-saving but requires more complex equipment. Bulk material processing and handling are highly risky for tropical mushroom cultivation due to the risk of contamination.

Incubation

The spawned compost bags are kept in a dark room until the mycelium has fully penetrated to the bottom of the substrate. In 20 to 30 days, depending upon the substrate/substrate combination, the substrate appears white, due to the growth of the mycelium. The bags are kept for an additional week before they are opened to check that the mycelium is mature enough to fruit. Most strains of the mushroom form primordia after 3 to 4 weeks of mycelial growth. The bags are opened, to initiate fruiting, inside a mushroom house.

Fruiting

A mushroom house should be used and its size will depend on the number of bags prepared at any one time. The house may be built of Nipa, sawali, wood or concrete. Air vents on the upper walls will provide the ventilation required for the development of the sporocarps. At the same time a small amount of light should be provided inside the house. The walls may be covered with plastic or foam sheets to increase the relative humidity (80.95%) in the production house.

Shelves, made from bamboo or wood, line both sides of the house. The shelves are on bamboo frames, one shelf above the other, with about 40-50 cm space between them. They should be strong enough to hold the bags or blocks containing the compost.

The bags are opened by removing the plug and the PVC pipe neck, then rolling down the mouth of the bag. Alternatively, the mouth portion may be cut off with a razor blade, or the bag may be slit either criss-crossed at four to six places, or simply slashed lengthwise. When following the latter technique, the bags may be suspended with a rope or string. When using blocks instead of bags, the blocks are opened either completely or with only the surface or upper portions exposed.

Fruiting requires an appropriate temperature range (20-28oC), ventilation, light moisture and humidity (80.-95%). To provide moisture, daily watering of the substrate is required. Watering, however, should not be so excessive that the substrate becomes waterlogged.

If the temperature inside the house rises to more than 30oC, a light water mist should be frequently used to lower the temperature and hasten fruiting. Doors and windows may also be opened, especially at night, to allow the cool night air to enter.

Approximately 3 to 4 days after opening the bags, mushroom primordia will begin to form. Mature mushrooms should be ready for harvesting in another 2 to 3 days. If the substrate has not yet been completely colonized, the onset of fruiting will be delayed.

To harvest the mushrooms, they should be grasped by the stalk and gently twisted and pulled. A knife should not be used. If kept in a refrigerator or in a cool place, the mushrooms should remain fresh for up to 3 to 6 days.

After harvesting from the top end of the bag, the other end may be opened to allow fruiting. The two ends are sometimes opened and allowed to fruit at the same time. After harvesting from the end portions, slits may be made on the central portion of the bag so that more mushrooms can develop. When a sawdust substrate is used, the harvested surface may be scraped lightly to expose a new surface for fruiting. As long as the substrate appears white, mushrooms will continue to form under adequate environmental conditions. When it appears colorless and soft, it is time to remove the bags from the house.

Yield

Yield ranges from about 100-200% of the dry weight of the substrate and depends on the substrate combination as well as the way in which the substrate has been managed during the fruiting season. From personal observations, the richer the combination and the whiter and denser the mycelium, the greater will be the mushroom yield.

To increase yield, the most common supplement used is urea or orchid fertilizer dissolved in water (100 gm in 100 liters water). Using a plastic mist sprayer, the solution is sprayed on the surface immediately before fruiting.